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Philosopher

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Akṣapāda Gautama

c. 2nd century CE (traditional; dates uncertain) · Nyāya · Ancient

Akṣapāda Gautama is the traditional author of the Nyāya Sūtra, the founding text of the Nyāya school of Indian logic and epistemology. Nothing reliable is known of his life, and the text was probably compiled in layers. Nyāya asks how we know: it names four valid means of knowledge (pramāṇa), namely perception, inference, comparison and testimony.

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It sets out a five-step inference, a catalogue of debate tactics and of fallacious reasons, and argues for a real self and a world that exists independently of minds. Its later commentators, Vātsyāyana and Uddyotakara, and the 'new Nyāya' of Gaṅgeśa, made it the sharpest logical tradition in classical India.

One card from sūtra 1.1.3.

Start here

Nyāya Sūtra book 1 with Vātsyāyana.

The definitions are all there.

Quotations

Key ideas

  • Four pramāṇas

    Perception, inference, comparison, and reliable testimony.

  • Five-step inference

    Thesis, reason, example, application, conclusion: 'the hill has fire, because it has smoke, like a kitchen'.

  • Fallacious reasons

    Lists ways an inference fails, much like a fallacy catalogue.

Major works

  • Nyāya Sūtra (c. 2nd century CE)

    With Vātsyāyana's commentary.

Influences

None listed in this library.

Influenced

Common misreadings

  • Nyāya is not only formal logic; it is a theory of knowledge and debate.
  • The five steps were for persuading others; the core is the reason and the example.

Famous lines Akṣapāda Gautama never said

None of the lines this library files for Akṣapāda Gautama is marked Questionable or Misattributed. That is only a fact about these cards. It is not a certificate that every popular sentence is theirs.

FAQ

What is the best book to start with?

Nyāya Sūtra book 1 with Vātsyāyana. The definitions are all there.

What is the most famous quote?

This library does not measure fame, and it does not rank lines by how often they are shared. The first line it files for Akṣapāda Gautama that is not marked Questionable or Misattributed is “Perception, inference, comparison and testimony are the means of valid knowledge.” (Nyāya Sūtra 1.1.3, Paraphrase or translation).

What is the most misquoted line?

None of the lines this library files for Akṣapāda Gautama is marked Misattributed or Questionable. That is a fact about these cards, not a certificate that every popular sentence is theirs.

What is one key idea, in a sentence?

Four pramāṇas: Perception, inference, comparison, and reliable testimony.