Quotation
Last reviewed:
“Perception, inference, comparison and testimony are the means of valid knowledge.”
Akṣapāda Gautama · Nyāya · Ancient · c. 2nd century CE
What does it mean?
There are only a few honest ways to know something, and each has its own tests.
Did Akṣapāda Gautama really say this?
The library’s label is Paraphrase or translation. English of pratyakṣānumānopamānaśabdāḥ pramāṇāni. Translations vary in how they render upamāna (comparison, analogy).
Where it comes from
Nyāya Sūtra 1.1.3
Approximate date: c. 2nd century CE.
How to use it
Before believing a claim on Facebook, ask which means it rests on: did someone see it, infer it, or just say it?
A mindset reading
Name the route a belief came by, then check that route.
Understand the philosophy
Rival schools argued over the list: Buddhists like Dignāga kept only perception and inference.
- knowledge
FAQ
What does it mean?
There are only a few honest ways to know something, and each has its own tests.
Did Akṣapāda Gautama really say this?
Paraphrase or translation. English of pratyakṣānumānopamānaśabdāḥ pramāṇāni. Translations vary in how they render upamāna (comparison, analogy).
Which work is it in?
Nyāya Sūtra 1.1.3 Approximate date: c. 2nd century CE.